Russell’s contribution to prose writing is a great one. He has written essays on almost all the social, political and religious topics. He has given his precious and thought provoking views for the benefit of mankind. He takes man as a rational entity at his high level. It is man’s rational ability which enables a man to ponder over any matter object and fact of nature. Human beings get or form ideas from these facts or objects of the universe. Some ideas can be very helpful to mankind and can lead mankind to the path of peace and prosperity. There are also some harmful ideas which can cause destruction for mankind.

Russell has written many essays on almost every topic or field of life and all his essays have their own worth and fame. But the essay “Of Ideas that Have Harmed Mankind” has its own unique importance. In this very essay, Russell discusses harmful beliefs that have harmed mankind. Huge destruction has already been made and will go on unless proper precautions and protective measures are not taken to eliminate them. History itself has shown the destruction caused by these harmful ideas.

Actually these ideas become such kind of beliefs which gradually start becoming a permanent source of man’s unhappiness throughout life. When such ideas or beliefs get into the blood of any society, the good and evil passions always go side by side within human beings. These ideas also lead man to a conflict between evil and good passions and sometimes one dominates the other. It is often observed that evil beliefs instigate the evil passions and they become dangerous and destructive for the society. These ideas and beliefs very often become a source of evil passions which ultimately take the form of pride, cruelty, avarice, greed, revenge, etc.

Russell very beautifully argues that passion for cruelty is more destructive. To clarify it, he exemplifies that when some one enjoys the sight of the sufferings of others, it means that he is pacifying his own cruel passions. It is really below the ethics of humanity and is a kind of severe cruelty to beat the insane person to make him free from the evil spirits believing that the beating will affect the evil spirit but not the body of the patient.

Talking about the ideas of the future, Russell points out that beliefs about the future in most of the cases have been a permanent source of harm to mankind. As no orie can predict or foretell about the happenings of the future exactly, then it is useless to think about the coming harms of the future. It is equally difficult to choose one out of the variety of beliefs available. Russell very strongly condemns those who think about the harms of the future of which they have no solid proof or surety to happen. These are such kind of harmful ideas or thoughts which stop the progress of the future progress in a country. In other words, under the influence of these beliefs, human progress becomes standstill.

Russell further elucidates the harmful ideas which work through the fertile mediums of selfishness, pride, envy, conceit and superstition. Religious beliefs are actually superstitions which have already done immense harm to mankind. It is laid stress in the religion that there should be total destruction of the defeated enemy. In stead of sympathizing with the suffering people, dogmatic people always enjoy the sight of their torture. The people who are religious minded and have the belief in self-righteousness think or believe that they are right, and hence they can harm others who are the non-believers.

These are such kinds of people who cause of great destruction and harm for the non-believers and they treat the non-believers as beasts.

Talking about the passions of pride and envy, Russell says that these are the fruit of harmful ideas which have also done great damage to mankind. Pride generates a sense of superiority either of sex or color or race of religion. Speaking rationally, pride and envy are absolutely baseless. To exemplify it, Russell argues that except having tougher muscles, the male does not have any inherent superiority over the female.

Such a kind of sense of superiority even does exist in super powers America, Russia, England, France, etc. Everyone regards those above who are equal to him, but thinks that he is superior to those who are below from him in status. In Russia, a new privileged class has appeared which is termed as proletariat. Pride of creed makes one look upon all as sinners who profess a different faith and who are surely doomed for hell.

The passion for envy which is an outcome of harmful ideas in one’s inner self, does not only cause of great harm in personal and public life but also in an international life. Both envy and selfishness are responsible for the source of “undignified behavior in a person. It becomes even more harmful and dangerous when it erupts between two nations which ultimately becomes more harmful than the personal envy.

Economic interest of every nation is different and this tendency is very dangerous for mankind. To make this point clear, Russell exemplifies by saying that if a barber or a butcher does the same, it only affects a limited circle of life but if it is practised by different nations then the whole human race is affected by it.

Nationalism is another very harmful idea which creates anarchy and roots among the different nations. Any kind of sense of self-importance whether personal or sectional or of the species is condemned by Russell in a very strong and severe criticism. Belief in magic and witchcraft is the result of this sense of self-importance.

To check these such a kind of harmful ideas, Russell himself suggests some precautions. By acting upon such suggestions, one can avoid these dogmatic beliefs. If the precautions are taken in time then the tensions produced by the harmful beliefs and ideas can be minimized to a very large extent. It is very necessary for someone to remain conscious of any belief which causes flattering one’s sense of self-esteem. Russell also makes it clear that if one does so one must not think or regard him as a divine savior or scourge. Suggesting another useful point, Russell says that the knowledge gained from social sciences must penetrate to the great mass of men because, in a democratic country, people have the final authority to choose the government and to judge its success or failure. It cannot be practiced in a nation which does not welcome the process of democracy. Democracy is a constant and gradual process and an abrupt introduction of it would be harmful for the masses in a country.

So, we can say in the concluding remarks that harmful ideas are the result of base, worthless and cheap passions. The real remedy or solution of these harmful ideas lies in the restrictions on such moral passions. Tolerance, compassion and kindness are such kind of supreme virtues that must be cultivated among the people at personal as well as public level so that a society could be purified from harmful ideas or beliefs.

Jonathan Swift satire In “Gulliver’s Travels” is depend on two types houmour and serious. As we study any literary work or composition of any writer, poet, novelist, dramatist etc. We come to know about its mode of writing, whether it is a serious one or comic one or ironic or satirical one.

A deep and careful study of “Gulliver’s Travells” shows that under the surface of these accounts of different but unknown and strange worlds or islands, experienced by Gulliver, lies a very fundamental and basic aim of satire. As we know that a true genius of satire lies under unmasking or revealing the follies, foibles, absurdities, shortcomings, drawbacks, vices of different kinds of the people in a very humorous and light comic manner. The main aim of a satirist in revealing or pointing out the vices of the people is to reform the people by getting them awarded of their bad vices of life.

In Gulliver’s Travells, we see that Gulliver, the narrator, had satirized every field of life of English men of his time. In his first voyage to the land of Lilliputians, he satirizes the political offices of his country which have been disturbed by some dishonest and corrupt candidates. As we know that: different political offices were distributed among the candidates by the English king in Swift’s time, that’s why, Gulliver mentions. Flimnap in his account of the ways of life of Lilliputians who is the treasurer represents Sir Robert Walpole who was the prime minister of England. Gulliver satirises his tricky nature, tactics and political intrigues which he often used in parliamentary to get high offices and positions for his favorites. Dancing on a tightrope symbolizes Walpole’s skill in parliamentary tactics.

Similarly, Reldresal represents Lord Carter who was appointed by Walpole to the office of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. The oft-quoted phrase, “one of the king’s cushions” referred to one of king George’s mistresses who helped to restore Walpole to favour after his fall in 1717.

In Lilliput, Gulliver was kept in the ancient temple and which Gulliver uses as a satire to Westminster Hall in which Charles I was condemned to death. In the account of search of Gulliver by the Lilliputians, Gulliver satirizes the committee which had been formed by Whigs to investigate the conduct of the men of establishment of the previous government and especially of Oxford and Bolingbroke who were suspected of treasonable relationships with the Old Pretender.

So, we can say that the activities of the Whig committee were very beautifully and aptly satirised by Gulliver in the account of Lilliputians’ ways of life. In the account of awarding the prizes to the winners of various contests in Lilliputians island, Gulliver satirises the ceremony of distributing different distinctions by the English King. Empress annoyance on Gulliver’s extinguishing fire in her apartment serves as an object of satirizing the Queen Anne’s annoyance with Gulliver for having written “A Tale of Tub” in which Gulliver attacked on religious abuses but the Queen Anne misread or misunderstood it.

Gulliver also satirises the intrigues and conspiracies which were set against him; show the features of political life, in England. The intrigues and conspiracies which were made by Flimnap against Gulliver in the island of Lilliputians give Gulliver a chance to satirize those intrigues and baseless impeachments which were going on in the court of George I. The articles of impeachment against Gulliver may be satirised as the actual impeachment in 1715 of four Tory ex-ministers.

On another occasion, Gulliver’s account of the political conflicts in the island of Lilliputians becomes a proof for Swift to satirize the political conflicts, intrigues and conspiracies of the government of his own time. Through the account of the conflict between the Big-Endian and the Little Endian, Swift satirises the going on conflicts and contests between the Catholics and the Protestants of English society of his time. Swift means to say that the conflicts and fights which are going on in the political parties and leagues of his society, are based on very cheap and worthless issues just as Big-Endians and Little Endians in Lilliput fight or wage a war among themselves on the issue of breaking the egg from the big end or small end. He is making fun of hair splitting theological disputes. In other words, we can say that Swift pokes fun at the political parties in England when he speaks of the two groups ‘in Lilliput. These two parties or factions are distinguished by their high heels and low heels.

We see that Swift has very deeply and bitterly criticised and satirised every field of life of the Englishmen which had been affected by the vices of that age. As we know that in his first part or first voyage, Swift sets his satire against the political system of his country but in Part II, his satire becomes general. He satirises the ugliness and the coarseness of human beings through the creatures of Brobdingnag. As the inhabitants of Brobdingnag are called Laputas, they present a contrast to the pygmies of Lilliput in size.

Here Swift is looking at mankind through the wrong end of the telescope. While in the account of Brobdingnag, he looks at mankind through a magnifying glass. There were not only the inhabitants (Laputas) were large and huge in size but also other animals like cat, dog, rat, eagles, etc. There were the women in huge and giant size that they treated Gulliver as a puppet or pigmy in their hands. Their bodies always displayed ugly sight and an everlasting smell always emitted from their bodies. Their breasts were too much big and large in size that they could even feed Gulliver from the nipples of their breast as a child. Through the account of the smell, ugliness and coarseness of the physical appearances and bodies, Swift satirises the ugliness and coarseness of English women of his time who used to beautify themselves outwardly with different powders, creams and chemicals.

Swift also satirises the scholars and philosophers of his age through the account in which Gulliver was estimated or judged as a creature of not being produced according to the regular laws of nature and hence he was a freak product.

Swift also presents a bitter satire against the tradesmen, businessmen, politicians and religious leaders through an account in which Gulliver was asked by the king of . Brobdingnag about the systems of politics, religion, trade and finance of his country. Turning to one of his ministers, the king observed how contemptible human grandeur was which could be mimicked by such diminutive insects as Gulliver. In other words, the king rebukes and condemns the human race of which Gulliver is a representative.

Here Swift compares the human race to people of Brobdingnag, consisting of insects. In this part of the book, the human pride and pretension are bitterly rebuked and ridiculed by Swift. According to the king, the human beings who have such lofty ideas about themselves are no better than insects. The beggars of English society are very aptly and bitterly criticized or rebuked by Swift in the account in which Gulliver told the readers that he had happened to see many beggars in the metropolis.

The sight of these baggers was really horrible and disgusting. Among the baggers was a woman with cancer in her breast. There was also a man with a huge tumour in his neck another bagger had wooden legs, each about twenty feet high. Gulliver felt disgusted at the sight of watching a lice crawling on their clothes. All this absolutely refers to Swift’s own view of the ugliness and foulness of the human body.

In the third part, Swift’s objects of satire are abundantly found which clearly prove that Swift has satirized the institutions of justice, legal courts, parliamentary proceedings, political systems of his time. After listening the prevalent hypocrisy, perfidy, cruelty, rage, madness, massacres, rebellions, murders, etc. from Gulliver’s mouth, the king commented on Gulliver’s accounts by saying that the history of his country seemed to him to be only a series of conspiracies, intrigues and is full of every kind of fatal and so called vices. He concluded from his remarks by saying that Gulliver’s country people are the most pernicious race of little odious vermin that nature ever suffered to crawl upon the surface of the earth.

Swift’s satire once again becomes too much bitter and harsh against destructive weapons and political ideologies when the king reacts scornfully and disgustedly to Gulliver’s account of the destruction which can be caused by means of gunpowder. The king also felt surprised and strange when Gulliver told him that in his country, hundreds of books had been written on the art of government. On this, the king rebuked and commented by saying that only common sense, reason and justice and not books are needed to run a government.

Though in Part III, the satire is mild and light hearted but it is very meaningful and apt. Here Swift bitterly and corresively satirises the musicians, scientists, philosophers, builders, mathematicians, astronomers, scholars, professors, etc. of his country throughout the accounts of those experiments and researches which were going on at the Academy of Projectors in Lagado. The projectors were busy in finding methods to extract sunbeams out of cucumbers to convert human excrement into its original food; to build houses from the roof downwards to the foundation; to obtain silk from cobwebs and to produce book on various subjects by the use of a machine without having exerted one’s brain.

There is no doubt is saying that all these accounts are objects of bitter satire on the experimental as well as functional or practical works of the intellectuals of the Royal Society in England. Through the accounts of Laputans life, Swift satirizes the English system of administration of the Royal Society, adopted in running the governmental offices in Ireland. As English government used to rule Ireland from a long distance with having touch with Irish people directly. For this purpose, Englishmen used some politicians to hold property in Ireland.

Swift here presents an allegorical account of the successful resistance of Ireland against William Wood’s halfpence. Through the Laputans method of ploughing in the fields, Swift condemns and rebukes the old and useless agricultural methods in England of his time. Swift also satirizes historians and literary critics through Gulliver’s interviews with the ghosts of the famous dead. Here the object of satire is those historians who often distort the facts and realities of the lives of the great personalities and they often misinterpret great authors like Homer and Aristotle.

As the ghost of Alexander freely told that he had not been poisoned to death as books of history said but he had died of a fever caused by excessive drinking. Just like this, the ghost of Hannibal told Gulliver that he did not have a drop of vinegar in his camp and the historical account of his crossing the Alps was wrong. Similarly, through an account of the immortals in Part III, Swift satirises the desires and longings of those who want to remain alive or immortal throughout their life on earth. As we are told that the immortals or immortal persons have grown so old, feeble and infirm that they want to die but death does not come to them.

Swift does not stop here criticizing, rebuking, condemning and especially satirizing the follies, foibles and so called vices of his English Royal Society but he presents more offensive, corrosive and bitter satire on mankind in this Part IV of the Book. The Yahoos who are intended to represent human beings, described as abominable, and unteachable creatures.

At first, Gulliver is astonished and surprised by watching a very close resemblance between them and the people of his own race. In other words, through the ways of life and habits of Yahoos, Gulliver wants to satirize those trends, ways of life and inclinations of mankind which are beyond reformation and correction. In the comparison with Yahoos, the Houyhnhnms were noble and benevolent animals who always led and ran their affairs and offices of state by using their reason and intellect in the right way.

Actually, by showing the Houyhnhnms or horses more superior to human beings, Swift bitterly satirises the wrong use of reason and intellect of mankind in their governmental as well as private sectors of life. Houyhnhnms periodical meetings and assemblies for running their affairs of state in the right way such as controlling their population, supply of foods, production of edibles, education and medicines, etc. in every district of the country serves as an objects of satire on the wrong use of reason and intellect in every field of life of English Royal Society. Gulliver also tells his host that war in European countries was due sometimes to the ambition of kings and sometimes to the corruption of ministers. He tells the host about the deadly weapons which were used for destroying the human race in his country. He also tells about the law-suits that were fought in English courts and he also further spoke disparagingly about the lawyers and judges.

Here, Gulliver is exposing the evils of war and the wickedness of lawyers and judges who were more victims of drinking, gambling and debauchery than their studies of civil suits. The sketch or portrayal of political as well as social life of his country which Gulliver shows to the host, gives clear cut and bitter criticism of the evils prevailing not only in England but in all countries of the world.

According to Gulliver, the prime minister is a person wholly free from joy and grief and had a violent desire for wealth, power and titles. He was not absolutely a man of speaking truth to the people of his country. The host’s account of Yahoos love of shining stones, their gluttony for liquor and especially lascivious behaviour of the female Yahoos presents a server and bitter satire and criticism of the human race.

On the other hand, Houyhnhnm holding periodical meetings for regulating their population by not indulging in sexual intercourse merely for pleasure proves that Swift hoped and believed in these qualities to be normally found in human beings but which were actually lacking in them. After watching the good and excellent qualities of the ways of life in Houyhnhnms, Gulliver filled with so much admiration for them and with so much hatred and disgust for the human race that he had no desire even to return to his family. Though his reaction to these follies and foibles in the mankind showed him as cynic and misanthropist yet he had concluded his account with a severe condemnation of human pride which was a target of Swift’s satire.

How Edward Said “Culture And Imperialism” Refer In All Over The World? When we have a deep analysis of Edward Said “Culture and Imperialism” in detail, we come to know that the main idea of this book was inspired by Said’s; earlier work Orientalism. This book was limited to the Middle East. But his book “Culture and Imperialism” presents a clear picture or the domination on the distant territories of the countries of Asia and Africa for capturing their natural responses of raw materials by the imperial Western countries. Said also includes the Caribean Islands, Ireland, the Middle East, East and even some certain areas of the USA.

It is also very worthy to note here that Said does not draw her subject matters from European writings on Africa, India, Far East, Australia and the Caribean Islands. The writings of these European writers were based on rhetorical figures like the mysterious. East, the Indian, African or Irish mind and further they depicted violation, torture to death, punishment of flogging the primitive barbaric people for civilizing them. They also asserted in their writings that such punishments were being required when they misbehaved or became rebellious.

Said takes much interest in the cultural study of imperialism and is of the view that the best source of such kind of study can be drawn by the fiction of the period. He also believes that the novel serves as the best source of forming imperialist attitudes, references and experiences of a certain age. Being a professor of teaching literature, he has devoted his entire professional life to teaching literature and yet his outlook was influenced further by the colonial system of the Englishmen. That’s why, it became his habit to expose and draw the imperialistic implications in the stories. Further, he also quotes the references from the great novelists’ works to support his viewpoint on cultural imperialism. Referring to the great novel “Great Expectations” by Charles Dickens, he says:

“What Dickens envisions for Pip, being Magwitch’s London gentleman, is roughly equivalent to what was envisioned by English benevolence for Australia”.

As it is known that Said always writes in organizing the resistance against imperialism, so, his genius tallies Conrad’s genius, who also writes, who also writes on the imperialistic exploitation of the basic rights of Africans by the Englishmen.

Being a great admirer of Joseph Conrad, Said’s conscience is spurred up or affected by Conrad’s superb criticism of imperialism, especially in Heart of Darkens. In this novel, Conrad openly and clearly exposes the feigned claim of civilizing the barbaric uncivilized people of Congo in Africa. Kurtz, who was a British administrator, was sent to Congo to prepare a report on the unspeakable rites, customs and behaviors of the savages of Congo and took suitable steps or measures to eliminate these rites. But what Kurtz did there, was absolutely contrary to our expectations because an imperialistic effect got the better hold of his noble intentions and he turned into a beast by looting, exploiting and snatching their basic rights. He became a cruel collector of ivory and – started robbing the wealth of the natives of Congo. 

In short, we can say that this novel is absolutely and rightly regarded as the severest indictment of imperialism. In the very introductory paragraph of introduction to culture and imperialism, said rightly utters:

 “For the enterprise of empire depends upon the idea of having an empire; as Joseph Conrad so powerfully seems to : have realized in Heart of Darkness. He says that the difference between us in the modern period, the modern imperialists, and the Romans, is that the Romans were there just for the look. They were just stealing. But we go there with an idea”.

Here, one point is very worthy to note though Said’s criticism and indictment of imperialism are not as severe and violent as Conrad’s are yet it is his indictment of imperialism which has shaken the sentiments of the people all over the world.

Commenting on the Conrad’s detachment; Said points out in the following words:

“Never the wholly incorporated and fully acculturated 1. Englishman, Conrad therefore preserved an ionic distance (from imperial conquest) in each of his works “

Edward Said“culture and imperialism”, he chooses four novelists whose work clearly highlights and promotes their current ideas of their day about the British Empire: These four great novelists are as Conrad, Kippling, Jane Austen and Dickens.

Quoting Jane Austen, Said says that it seems that by casually referring to Antigua in Mansfield Park, Austen revealed that she had the empire in the back of her mind most of the time, that she was nevertheless indifferent to the condition of the subjected people. Actually, in Mansfield Park, she sublimates the agonies of the Caribbean existence to a mere half dozen passing references to Antigua, and that she dodged facing up to her true responsibility to condemn imperialism and all its works.

At another place in the book “Culture and Imperialism”, Edward Said refers to Dickens in “Great Expectations”. In this novel, we see that he sent the convict Mag witch off to Australia, which was absolutely a dreadful place, unfit for decent Englishmen, it showed that Dickens intentionally knew that he was a despised colonial lad.

Said is of the view that colonialism is also a consequence of imperialism and it takes its final shape in implanting of settlements on distant territory. Here he quotes the historian Mickael Doyle who states as:

“Empire is a relationship, formal or informal, in which one state controls the effective political sovereignty of another political society. It can be achieved by force, by political collaboration, economic, social or cultural dependence. Imperialism is simply the process or policy of establishing or maintaining an empire”.

In addition to the novelists, Said also quotes some prominent historians of English society who have differently favoured the imperialism and domination of the Western countries. For example, a very allowable but curious idea was propagated by the English historian J.R. Seeley. He was of the views that some of Europe’s overseas empires were originally acquired by accident, it does not by any stretch of the imaginative account for their inconsistency, persistence and systematized acquisition and administration, let alone their rule and sheer presence.

As David Laundless also speaks in the same connection with Bunts then to some an extent it is about the industrial expansion of Western countries. He states in the following words; as 

“the decision of certain European power to establish plantations, that as, to treat their colonies as continuous enterprises, was,whatever one may think of the morality’, a momentous innovation.”

In the mid 19th century though the era of imperialism changed to an end because France and Britain gave up their strong possessions after World War II yet that era had an identity for example, Eric Hobsbawm, talked about the Latter part of the nineteenth century. He utters as:

“Though the age of empire clearly had an identity all of its own, and Historians talk about it roughly. from 1878 through World War I, the meaning of the imperial past is not totally contained within it, but has entered the reality of hundreds of millions of people. Its existence as shared memory in a highly conflicted texture of culture, ideology memory and policy still exercises tremendous force”.

Talking about the flattering notion of the French and the British that they were going to improve and civilize the barbaric people of backward regions, Franz Fanon, another historian openly exposes the real cruel nature of exploitation of the imperialists of the western countries in the following words:

“Colonialism and imperialism have not paid their dues when they withdrew their flags and their police forces from our territories. For centuries the foreign colonists have behaved in the underdeveloped world like nothing more than criminals”.

The end of the cold war resulted in a new world order with the United States at the top. Edward Said “culture and Imperialism” is of the view hence that it is a new kind of imperialism which gave the US an authority of setting things right all over the world. In the present age, we see its implementation in almost all the Countries of the third world because this doctrine of “world responsibility is now considered as justification for US involvement in any affair of every country.”

In this regard, Said rightly quotes the words of Chomsky who aptly and beautifully lashes out at the Western ideology of “world order” and “world responsibility” in the following words:

“It is an absolute requirement for the Western system of ideology that a vast gulf be established between the civilized west, with its traditional commitment to human dignity, liberty ant self determination, and the barbaric brutality of those who, for some reason perhaps defective genes, fail to appreciate the depth of this historical commitment, so well revealed by America’s Asian Wars, for instance”.

In the concluding portion of the book, and show the relationship between culture and imperialism, Said gives reference from Kuman’s saying who points out that now America’s self-appointed writes running and working throughout the world today. As he utters: ;

“America loved to think that whatever it wanted was just what the human race wanted”.

Every prominent critic knows and believes in it that the counter forces to imperialism are migrant workers, refugees, decolonized people. Imperialism always threatens personal freedom as well as environment ironically under the guise of trying to civilize and improve these both. Under these circumstances, these millions of dislocated may unite on these two points and rise a very dreadful revolt against the champion of world order and responsibility. It is also observed now that the U.S.A. has become weaker and unstable due to its inner problems of economic and cultural crisis, for example, there has been a lot of discussion about the “Canon”. It’s power is decreasing due to these internal crises and on the other hand there is an ascendancy of Pacific Rim States, like Taiwan, China and Japan.

Morality And Politics In Unpopular Essays, It had been worldly acknowledged in the right manner that man is a social animal. It is due to his god-gifted ability of intellect that he stands above the level of animality. Allah has created human beings as a rational entity; that’s why, many internal operations are always going on in his mind.

It is due to The brooding nature that many ideas occur and varnish in this and Some ideas may be helpful to him while others cause of a lot of destruction for him. Some useful ideas are stored in his mind and become a source of permanent knowledge for him. These are the ideas which add more to man’s experiences. Under the influence of good ideas, a man becomes more friendly. Russell is always of the view that those ideas can be recorded as helpful which add happiness to man’s nature. Though ideas can help man to a smaller or greater level yet it is very worthy to note here that ideas have so far not been very successful to help mankind.

There are many ideas which become a source of pleasure and amusement yet they add a little to human happiness, hence, these ideas can’t be regarded as fully helpful ideas. These are the ideas which open newer ways of experience and amusement which are not within the reach of animals. As we know that human intellect and genius are always in the process of brooding over any fact or matter, as a result, these abilities generate such ideas that add a variety of amusements to man. Apparently some ideas add to present worry but inwardly they serve as foresight and care for the future by providing remedies against the future ills.

It is a very sorry state of affairs that despite man’s intelligence and ideas, starvation death in men is its higher scale than it is observed among birds who do not even have the advantage of ideas. There is not doubt in saying that man gives birth to ideas because of the tension and anxiety.

Man is created for living in community or tribes and sometimes ideas also become a source of friendliness and brotherliness among mankind. Sometimes, on the one hand, Ideas cause close relationships of friendliness and brotherliness but on the other hand, these ideas also generate animal emotions in men. It is often observed that binds and animals don’t show such friendly atmosphere, rather they snatch and fight for dining. Man’s use of language had always served as uplifting man’s position superior to all other creatures of the universe.

At first, man’s this god gifted skill of communication was oral but later converted into written form. It is the use of language which enables a man to communicate his ideas to his other fellow human beings. Man tamed the animals and invented an agricultural system for fulfilling his daily needs of life. Both these rational inventions are the great results of helpful ideas. Similarly we can observe and say that mathematics and astronomy are the great results of the advantages of helpful ideas. Greeks made new discoveries by using the helpful ideas and made a great contribution in the history of science. In the modern world, scientists like Galilea and Newton are the founders of discoveries. Darwin’s discoveries or works caused a dramatic change in man’s knowledge of his own origin and these works also stirred up the Orthodox religious circles.

According to Russell, there are two types of ideas; technical and moral which have helped great to mankind. Speaking on the moral side of the ideas, Russell is of the view that human capacity for love, the human ability to appreciate beauty and envoy intellectual understanding and above all his emotionality of universal love reflect the angelic aspect of human beings. In spite of having such kind of superior angelic qualities, there also lies a diabolic or devilish side in human nature.

It means to say that he is also an embodiment of cruelty, greed, indifference; avarice, ambition, lust, violation, pride, etc. The history of atrocities was practiced by the Germans, the Jews, the Russians and the Germans showed man’s devilish aspect of his nature. Though Christ, Buddha and other ancient gods of Greece propagated brotherhood, friendliness and fellowship a lot yet this practice had affected human beings a little because man’s natural inclination is towards vice.

Taking about the idea of liberty, Russell argues though this idea is very important yet some rulers and nations mishandled it. Nazis grossly misused it while the communists exploited the liberty of the individuals in the name of state’s totalitarianism. There is no doubt that the liberty of the state is very necessary but it must not be so absolute to minimize the liberty of the masses. The liberty of an individual is as important as that of the liberty of the state. Here we see that Russell’s argument is absolutely right because in a state where there is no liberty of an individual or the masses, such state can’t be termed as a successful or flourishing state.

Russell absolutely favours that state in which there is an absolute democracy because democracy is a firm guarantee of the liberty of an individual. In a democratic country where there is liberty of an individual is usurped or snatched, such nation or country can’t be termed as a successful democratic state. In other words, we can say that without an individual’s liberty, democracy would merely be a mockery.

Supporting or favouring the ideas of law and of government, Russell argues that these have an important place among political ideas which have helped mankind a lot. And shows the precious contribution in prose.Both are important for the betterment of the people. Same can be applied in the case of the world government which is expected to come into existence. From the very early existence of – human life, there was an idea of the government of an absolute tyrannical monarchy but with the passage of time and gradually it converted into democratic government and democracy took the place of this government in some super powers of the world.

Russell further adds by saying that above all, now there is required a world government to solve all the problems of man. The formation of a world government would be only the logical culmination of the evolution of the idea of government, for the empires of antiquity grew from small kingdoms and from them grew the modern states. Russell very beautifully argues that recent developments in all over the world have made the smaller states lose much of their real Independence. As a result, they are merging into the big states and the idea of a world government is getting closer and closer.

There are only two states of America and Russia which are absolutely independent at the moment. There should be a day when their logical development merges into a single state. After the formation of the world government, the happiness and well-being of mankind would be started in the strict sense of the word.

Russell very optimistically states that world will be able to enjoy greater leisure, if disease and want are wiped out from the whole world. All this would be possible through technological progress which is sufficient in the process going on. Politicians can play a very vital role in this regard. They should pay more attention to keeping fellow men alive than killing them. The man of today is standing at the cross-roads from where he has to take a very crucial decision of choice; as one road goes to untold disaster while the other one leads to prosperity, happiness, security and well-being. Russell himself favours the second one as it leads a man to the road of success.

To conclude this above mentioned discussion, it can be said vehemently and forcefully that a man, being a rational entity, has the god-gifted ability of proofing good ideas which are helpful to mankind. Russell’s contribution in prose is remarkable .This very ability makes a man superior to animals. The idea of law and the idea of government which have great place among political ideas; ideas of democracy, ideas of enjoyments to man, ideas of curing the future ills, ideas causing of friendliness and brotherliness, ideas of forming a world government, etc. are all the helpful ideas for adding human happiness in the masses.